| Dr. Jai Maharaj 2004-10-20, 7:11 pm |
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[ From: "Ross Cannon" <ross.cann@juno.com>
[ Date: Tue, 19 Oct 2004
THE OVERSTORY #146 -- Improving Edible Species of Forest Products
By Jonathan C. Okafor
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THE OVERSTORY #146--Improving Edible Species of Forest Products
By Jonathan C. Okafor
Contents:
o INTRODUCTION
o MEDICINAL USES
o TAXONOMY OF EDIBLE FOREST PRODUCTS
o INTRASPECIES VARIATION
o DEVELOPMENT OF PROPAGATION AND COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
o --> Vegetative propagation
o --> Propagation from seed
o --> Germplasm collection
o CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
o OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDIBLE FOREST SPECIES
o CONCLUSIONS
o LITERATURE
o ORIGINAL SOURCE
o ABOUT THE AUTHOR
o WEB LINKS
o RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY
o PUBLISHER NOTES
o SUBSCRIPTIONS
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INTRODUCTION
The contributions of wild fruits, nuts, seeds, vegetables and other
classes of edible products to the local diet in developing countries
and their potential in overcoming or ameliorating prevailing food
problems are enormous (Getahun, 1974; Okafor, 1975a, 1980a, 1980b,
1981a; Okigbo, 1977; Roche, 1975a).
Edible forest products include edible nuts and seeds used as staple
foods or main dishes; those used as minor food supplements;
condiments, thickening agents and flavours; leafy vegetables; edible
flowers; fresh fruits; fresh seeds; edible oil; spices; fruit drinks
and nonalcoholic beverages; alcoholic drinks (plus flavouring barks);
mushrooms; honey; and bush meat (game, snails, insects, etc.).
Forest plants are important and cheap sources of vitamins, minerals,
protein, carbohydrates and fats; moreover, their dietary contribution
is increased because they are available during most seasons,
including strategic periods in the year when the conventional staples
and vegetables are scarce. For example, the African pear (Dacryodes
edulis) matures during the "hungry season" when staples such as yam,
cocoyam and rice have been planted but are not yet ready for harvest.
Similarly, flushes from trees such as Pterocarpus spp. and Vitex
doniana, which are used as vegetables, are available during dry
seasons when cultivated vegetables are scarce or obtainable only
where there are irrigation facilities.
MEDICINAL USES
In many instances, the distinction between food and medicine is not
clear-cut; many edible plants from the forest are also used in
traditional medicine. For example, popular vegetables such as
Vernonia amygdalina, Pterocarpus spp., Vitex doniana, Gongronema
latifolium and Ocimum gratissimum have wide application, as do the
species Xylopia aethiopica and Piper guineense (Okafor, 1987, 1989c).
Seeds of Garcinia Kila (bitter kola) are reputed as a poison antidote
and are useful in the treatment of coughs add hepatitis (Iwu et al. ,
1987).
Notwithstanding its importance, the consumption of forest foods
appears to be declining in many regions. This is partly a result of
changing tastes and expanding markets for foreign goods as rural
economies become increasingly exposed to market forces. Another
important contributing factor is the declining availability of forest
foods as growing populations, severe forest degradation and
privatization of formerly common lands combine to put increasing
pressure on the remaining forest resources.
Forest products can still make substantial contributions to filling
dietary needs, but new approaches need to be developed, focusing on
the identification and improvement of species with high potential,
and the development of strategies for more intensive production of
both traditional and innovative products.
TAXONOMY OF EDIBLE FOREST PRODUCTS
There are regrettably few works specifically dedicated to taxonomic
accounts of edible wild plants; available information comes mostly
from general notes or casual remarks in floras and more general
texts, as well as from oral tradition. However, a number of
comprehensive taxonomic surveys include references to edible
products. For example, Seyani (1988) presents an account of 180
species of African edible fruits (berries or nuts) distributed in 39
families; and 19 species of edible wild flowers in seven families.
Okafor (1981a) also reports on 171 indigenous woody plants (53
families and 119 genera) of nutritional importance within the forest
zone of Nigeria.
Ethnobotanical surveys are a source of additional information that is
generally omitted from standard taxonomic texts and floras. For
instance, surveys carried out in Cross River State of Nigeria
(Okafor, 1990a) have revealed that flowers of Kigelia africana,
Glyphaea brevis and Bombax sp. are used as-a vegetable. Similarly,
leaves of a well-known timber tree Milicia excelsa (also classified
as Chlorophora excelsa ) and of Albizia zygia are also used as
vegetables.
TABLE 1. TREES WITH EDIBLE PARTS SUCCESSFULLY BUDDED
SPECIES FAMILY
Afzelia africana Caesalpiniaceae
A. bella var. bella Caesalpiniaceae
Bosqueia angolensis Moraceae
Canarium schweinfurthii Burseraceae
Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae
Chrysophyllum albidum Sapotaceae
Cola acuminate Sterculiaceae
C. gigantea Sterculiaceae
C. hispida Sterculiaceae
Dacryodes edulis Burseraceae
Detarium microcarpum Caesalpiniaceae
Dialium guineense Caesalpiniaceae
Hildegardia barteri Sterculiaceae
Irvingia gabonensis Irvingiaceae
Monodora myristica Annonaceae
Myrianthus arboreus Moraceae
Parkia biglobosa Mimosaceae
Pentaclethra macrophylla Mimosaceae
Pterocarpus mildbraedii Papilionaceae
P. santalinoides Papilionaceae
P. soyauxii Papilionaceae
Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae
Tetrapleura tetraptera Mimosaceae
Treculia africana Moraceae
Vitex doniana Verbenaceae
Xylopia sp. Annonaceae
Source: Okafor, 1981a.
INTRASPECIES VARIATION
The existence of natural variation within food-yielding trees is a
crucial factor in efforts aimed at conservation, development and
utilization of edible forest species (Whitmore, 1976; Okafor, 1980b).
For example, taxonomically distinct varieties described in some
African fruit-trees, including Irvingia gabonensis (Okafor, 1975b),
Treculia africana subsp. africana (Okafor, 1981b) and Dacryodes
edulis (Okafor, 1983a), have shown significant differences in the
phenology of flowering, fruiting and leaf flush. Such phenological
differences offer the possibility of deliberately extending the
period of fruit and vegetable availability, increasing the yield and
choosing the desired pattern as well as season of yield (Okigbo,
1977; Okafor, 1978). If the two varieties of I. gabonensis, which
fruit in rainy and dry seasons respectively, each were to be
developed, the combined period of availability of the products would
be significantly extended. Similarly, two Pterocarpus species ( P.
soyauxii and P. mildbraedii) are reported to have different patterns
of leaf flush (one spontaneous and the other intermittent), making
the first suitable for commercial production and the second for home
production.
DEVELOPMENT OF PROPAGATION AND COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
--> Vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation methods at present in use consist of budding
(bud grafting) and stem cuttings. For early flowering and fruiting
from bud grafts, it is essential to collect budwood from the exposed
crowns of selected adult trees (phenotypes) which have commenced
fruiting (Oleson, 1978). The desired growth habit (orthotropic or
plagiotropic) can be achieved through deliberate selection of
budwood, either from terminal leaders or from lateral branches.
Some 26 species of food trees were found to be buddable in
experiments carried out using adult scions (Okafor, 1978, 1980b,
1981a) (see Table 1). Budded trees of some of these species
(Chrysophyllum albidum, Dacryodes edulis, Dialium guineense, Irvingia
gabonensis, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Spondias mombin and Treculia
africana) produced viable fruit at very low heights after only two to
four years (instead of five to ten or more in trees raised from
seed).
Propagation by stem cuttings (without application of rooting
hormone), using adult budwood, was also successful among 21 species
(see Table 2). Fruiting was recorded within two years in stem
cuttings of T. africana var. inversa and D. guineense. In the case of
T. africana fruiting was pitched at ground level.
The use of truncheons (large cuttings) in propagation was also
successful in Adansonia digitata, Ceiba pentandra, Ficus spp. ,
discolor, Spondias mombin and Pterocarpus spp.
TABLE 2. WOODY PLANTS WITH EDIBLE PARTS SUCCESSFULLY PROPAGATED BY
ADULT STEM CUTTINGS
SPECIES FAMILY
Ceiba pentandra Bombacacea
Cola gigantea Sterculiaceae
Detarium microcarpum Caesalpiniaceae
Dialium guineense Caesalpiniaceae
Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii Menispermaceae
Ficus capensis Moraceae
Gnetum spp. Gnetaceae
Gongronema latifolium Asclepiadaceae
Hildegardia barteri Sterculiaceae
Heinsia crinata Rubiaceae
Lasianthera africana Icacinaceae
Monodora myristica Annonaceae
Myrianthus arboreus Moraceae
Piper guineense Piperaceae
Pterocarpus mildbraedii Papilionaceae
P. santalinoides Papilionaceae
P. soyauxii Papilionaceae
Tetracarpidium conophorum Euphorbiaceae
Treculia africana Moraceae
Triplochiton sp. Sterculiaceae
Vernonia amygdalina Compositae
Source: Okafor, 1981a.
--> Propagation from seed
Large-scale production of food trees and shrubs for a conservation
programme or for commercial-scale planting will require efficient,
economical, standardized nursery procedures, and knowledge of
reliable practices for raising the planting stock from select or
improved seeds. Standard nursery practices have been developed for
several species including Dacryodes edulis, Irvingia gabonensis and
Treculia africana (Okafor, 1981a, 1990b).
--> Germplasm collection
The propagation techniques discussed above also offer considerable
scope when used in connection with the collection of germplasm for
evaluation and conservation purposes. However, exploration and
collection have not been extensively or intensively adopted to cover
the ecological ranges of the useful species, either in the natural
forest or on traditional farms, where the species have been
consciously or unconsciously selected and conserved through
protection and planting over several millennia. The extensive
adoption of a grid system for systematic exploration could be
extremely useful in this context. Establishment of genetic resource
centres, gene banks and seed banks for fruit- and food-bearing tree
species also requires further development in most African countries.
However, the efforts of the National Centre for Genetic Resources and
Biotechnology and the Forestry Research Institute in Nigeria are at
present laying the groundwork for the study, collection and
conservation of edible plant resources.
New techniques for germplasm storage have been described inter alia
by Henshaw (1987), including in vitro storage, involving the
production of non-adventitious shoot meristems originating from
organs or embryos, either from cells present in the original explant
or from cells which have proliferated in vitro. Although the system
of in vitro storage by tissue cultures is still at the research
stage, it holds great potential for genetic conservation of rare and
recalcitrant species.
CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
Conservation of ecosystems and genetic resources of target species in
areas where edible plants are found is particularly important in the
tropics where the forests are being subjected to destruction or
excessive exploitation. This is more so because of the narrow
distribution ranges and often low densities of food- and
fruit-bearing species which, because of these characteristics are
prone to genetic depletion or extinction following habitat
modification.
Both in situ and ex situ conservation methods are necessary (Roche,
1975b; Kio et al. , 1985; Hawkes, 1987; Henshaw, 1987). Budding,
grafting and taking cuttings, which are suitable methods of
propagation of desirable clones of food trees (Okafor, 1978, 1980b),
have great prospects for ex situ conservation.
The usefulness of agroforestry as a tool for conservation also has
been examined (Okafor, 1989a; Okafor and Caldecott, 1990), with
specific reference to the Cross River National Park in Nigeria.
Agroforestry was considered strategically fundamental to plans for
stabilizing land use in the area, as a way to intensify agricultural
production in the support zone and thereby increase economic returns
while simultaneously reducing the amount of forest cleared.
Agroforestry can also contribute to the conservation of biodiversity,
if local people are encouraged to use local forest species,
especially edible varieties, in agroforestry practices. For example,
seeds of promising edible wild species may be collected and raised in
nurseries for planting on farmlands and other areas in villages and
towns.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDIBLE FOREST SPECIES
The direct nutritional and dietary contributions of forest foods are
documented in many other works (e.g. Anderson, 1989; Jong et al.,
1973; Okafor, 1975a, 1979, 1989a; Falconer, 1990; Hoskins, 1990).
Edible forest products also generate substantial cash income for
rural people, thereby contributing to their welfare and means of
livelihood, and to the household budget (Okafor, 1989a, 1990a). There
is significant potential for the improvement of this contribution
through the development of cottage industries based on commercial
production of forest edibles. These industries, in turn, could
enhance the improved and efficient utilization of the products. They
could also promote the conservation of the species for the
sustainable supply of raw materials (Okafor, 1983b, 1990b).
Small-scale commercial production of foods from edible forest
products can help to reduce wastage and promote better preparation,
packaging and storage and more widespread marketing of the items. A
number of products that could be produced commercially from
indigenous African fruits are described below.
o Jams and jellies. Suitable species include Irvingia gabonensis var.
gabonensis Chrysophyllum albidum and Dialium guineense (Okafor, 1973;
Okafor and Okolo, 1974).
o Fruit juice. With the exception of C. albidum, all the species
listed above for jam and jelly are also suitable for fruit juice.
Other suitable species include Tamarindus indica and Parkia biglobosa
(Okafor, 1980a, 1983b).
o Confectioneries. Breadfruit flour, which is processed from Treculia
africana, can be used to produce a variety of sweetened baked goods,
including cookies, buns, cakes, biscuits and snacks (Anazonwu-Bello,
1981).
o Soup mixes. The flour of T. africana is suitable for the
preparation of a product which tastes much like mushroom soup.
o Non-alcoholic beverages. Recently, Ejiofor et al. (1988) have
prepared a non-alcoholic brewed beverage from T. africana seeds that
was found acceptable when taken without milk and sugar.
o Composite seasoning. Various indigenous spicy seeds and leaves can
be blended into composite seasoning with export potential. Suitable
species include Xylopia spp., Piper guineense, Monodora myristica,
and the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum (Ajayi, 1986).
o Oil. The high oil content of the fruits of Dacryodes edulis, Elaeis
guineensis, Irvingia, gabonensis and Butyrospermum spp. indicates
their suitability for commercial production of cooking oil and
margarine, and industrial application in manufacture of soaps,
cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations. Their oil is considered as
good as or even better than cocoa butter (Okafor and Okolo, 1974;
Okafor, 1983b; Udeala et al., 1980; Omoti and Ikiy, 1987).
o Agbono cubes. The kernels of Irvingia gabonensis, known as agbono,
are used throughout West Africa as a thickening agent in soups.
Ejiofor et al. (1987) have confirmed that the kernel residue of I.
gabonensis can be cubed or packaged in any other form and sold more
widely in Nigerian markets or exported to other countries.
CONCLUSIONS
Edible non-wood forest products are indispensable to rural people for
regular or supplementary food supply and as sources of cash income.
However, scientific investigation into improved use and conservation
of the resource base has been inadequate. In some cases, extensive
use, combined with widespread degradation of forest lands or
deforestation, is threatening certain species with extinction.
Vegetative propagation techniques and nursery procedures so far
developed for several of the species have great prospects for ex situ
conservation of threatened species. The positive results of the
propagation methods discussed above argue for their widespread
application in traditional farming systems and agroforestry
practices, and could well favour local participation in a practical
and meaningful conservation programme.
Systematic exploration and evaluation of germplasm of wild and
cultivated varieties is fundamental to success. Research into
conventional and novel in vitro techniques for germplasm storage and
multiplication should be intensified through provision of equipment,
facilities and funds and training of human resources.
The activities of both national and international institutions
regarding in situ conservation should be supported by complementary
programmes on underutilized tropical crops.
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LITERATURE CITED
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Nigeria, Dept of Food Technology, Federal Polytechnic.
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Symposium on development of indigenous technology. Enugu, Nigeria,
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Anderson, A.B. 1989. Land-use strategies for successful extractive
economies. Paper presented at the symposium on extractive economies
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gabonensis (var. gabonensis and var. excelsa ). United Kingdom, Int.
Tree Crops Journal , 4.
Ejiofor, M.A.N., Obiajulu, O.R. & Okafor, J.C. 1988. Diversifying
utilities of African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne. subsp.
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Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forests. Unasylva,
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Irvine, F.R. 1961. Woody plants of Ghana with special reference to
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Iwu, M.M. et al. 1987. Evaluation of the antihepatotoxic activity of
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Okafor, J.C. 1975a The place of wild (uncultivated) fruits and
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- - - - - - - - -
ORIGINAL SOURCE
This article is excerpted with the gracious permission of the
publisher from:
Okafor, J.C. 1990. Improving edible species of forest products.
Unasylva 165, Vol. 42 - 1991/2. FAO, Rome. Web site:
http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/u2440E/u2440e04.htm
- - - - - - - - -
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Jonathan C. Okafor is a consultant on tree crops and tropical ecology
based in Enugu, Anambra State, Nigeria. He has had a long and
distinguished career in forestry, with an emphasis on trees that
produce non-timber forest products, especially indigenous fruits. His
expertise has been recognized by many development agencies and he has
consulted in many countries of Africa, especially West Africa, and
worldwide. His vision has inspired recognition of the domestication
of indigenous trees for agroforestry as an important means of
enhancing the livelihoods of subsistence farmers.
- - - - - - - - -
WEB LINKS
Underutilized Tropical Fruits in Asia Network (UTFAN):
http://www.soton.ac.uk/~icuc/utfanet/
International Centre for Underutilised Crops:
http://www.civil.soton.ac.uk/icuc/
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute's Conserving and
increasing the Use of Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species:
http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/nus/home.htm
Australian New Crops: http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/
Non-wood News is an information-rich newsletter produced by FAO's
Wood and Non-wood Products Utilization Branch, providing readers
with current information on nontimber forest products and their
contribution to the sustainable development of the world's forest
resources: http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/newsle-e.stm
Canadian International Development Agency's "Forests and Food
Security": http://www.rcfa-cfan.org/english/issues.5.html
FAO's Gender and Food Security page:
http://www.fao.org/Gender/en/fore-e.htm
Eldis Food Security Resource Guide: http://www.eldis.org/food/
- - - - - - - - -
RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY
The Overstory #141--Edible Leaves
The Overstory #139--"Hungry season" food from the forests
The Overstory #136--Underutilised Indigenous Fruit Trees
The Overstory #128--Wild Foods
The Overstory #127--Food Security
The Overstory #109--Cultural Landscapes
The Overstory #106--Hidden Bounty of the Urban Forest
The Overstory #105--Complex Agroforests
The Overstory #76--Ethnoforestry
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory76.html
The Overstory #71--Nontimber Forest Products (temperate)
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory71.html
The Overstory #64--Homegardens
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory64.html
The Overstory #51--Protecting and Expanding Traditional Agroforests in
the Pacific
http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory51.html
- - - - - - - - -
PUBLISHER NOTES
Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources
Editor: Craig R. Elevitch
The Overstory is distributed by Agroforestry Net, Inc., a nonprofit
501(c)(3) organization based in Hawaii.
Address: P.O. Box 428, Holualoa, Hawaii 96725 USA
Email: overstory@agroforestry.net ; Web site:
http://www.overstory.org
Past editions of The Overstory: http://www.overstory.org
This publication is Copyright 2004 Permanent Agriculture Resources.
All Rights Reserved Worldwide. For Conditions of Use please contact
overstory@agroforestry.net or write to Agroforestry Net, Inc. at the
address above.
This journal is designed to provide agricultural information, but
is sent with the understanding that the editors and publishers are
not engaged in rendering consultation. If expert assistance is
required, the services of a professional should be sought.
- - - - - - - - -
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